Situational awareness (SA) requires the accurate gathering of data (despite physical and mental obstacles) then filtering and making sense of this buzzing cacophony and finally projecting this all forward in time toward an intended outcome. In the context of a busy and distracting aviation environment, this is a complex undertaking. Understanding and mastering this critical mental process is the heart of aviation safety but gets little examination or instructional focus; āyouāll figure it outā¦ā. And though in every area of aviation our mental content will vary ā be it VFR mountain flying or busy IFR in the Bravo ā the mental process and tool kit are the same.
Level One SA is data gathering and being present entirely in the moment.
Given perfect situational awareness (SA) a pilot will perceive an environment completely free of physical or physiological hindrances. But human factors problems complicate this objective; is it too dark, or blinded by the sun, you forgot your glasses? And psychological problems also provide challenges; fatigue, stress or complacency limit our attention/perception. Distraction and āmulti-taskingā ā ATC calling, pax or pilot interaction ā are a fact of life in aviation and they limit our ability to focus and filter signal from noise. And with every distraction to attention āsituational awareness recoveryā time is required to regain our focus.
According to researchers most errors (76.3%) occur at the Level 1 (perceptual) area ā we simply miss the cues, donāt see the signs or we are naturally distracted, bored or blinded in some manner. This is the reason for āsterile cockpitā SOPs in busy environments. A defective mental model also interferes ātop downā with perceptual clarity because what we see/hear is driven by what we think is important ā we essentially create our own reality. Psychologists call this āattentional blindnessā and āperceptual tunnelingā ā we miss data that might be critical to safety.
Level two SA is developing a āmental modelā and understanding/interpreting the current situation.
What does all this gathered information mean in reference to the current, evolving flight profile? At level two our brain assembles the filtered input data (<10%) and assigns probable meanings; āsensemaking.ā This process functions continuously and interactively and is often entirely at the subconscious level. We operate largely āon autopilotā when we interpret our world, especially in a time-critical, high-stakes environment.
Level 2 is where āhours and experienceā help a pilot assemble an accurate mental model. āIāve seen this story beforeā is often how we comprehend an evolving situation. The human mind is really a āprediction processing machineā that filters and fits data into an existing mental model. āCleared for the ILSā engenders a whole spectrum of related and relevant skills, experience and expected patterns. Without this largely subconscious āscriptingā we could not function efficiently in our busy buzzing world.
But āhours and experienceā is also a problem when we stereotype and āoverfitā a model or assume everything is as it was before; complacency. Every mental model blinds us to unique occurrences in the perceptual field (attentional blindness ā we see what we āexpectā). These missed data may be critical to safety (NASAās leaking āO ringsā?) In studies of accidents 20.3% were Level 2 errors; comprehending the data and assembling the mental model to assign meanings.
Level 3 SA is projecting the currently evolving situation into the desired future outcome.
You would think imagination would play no role in aviation, but level three is entirely the creative extrapolation of our current situation into a desired or intended outcome; āI will intercept the LOC, couple to the glideslope, break out at 400ā² etc.ā As with other levels, fatigue, distraction and lack of time can damage SA, but Level 3 SA is especially the vulnerable to these demons. Briefing expected actions and mentally testing expected outcomes is a critical safety tool that often gets skipped or overlooked when time is short. Level 3 SA is our primary method to āget ahead of the airplaneā and direct a flight rather than just reacting. Level 3 SA is also where we need to step up to a higher order thinking āconscious oversightā level and test our mental model with Daniel Kahnemanāsā System 2ā³ critical analysis. We cannot operate totally on ādecision autopilotā if we want to be safe.
So how can we improve our situational awareness?
Constant, active vigilance of the level we are operating in (and where we should be) is one important method to increase SA. As much as possible, I recommend constantly shifting the levels of SA (like a telephoto lens) dynamically changing from big picture to detail view (micro/macro) in a conscious scanning manner. This is what psychologists call āmetacognitionā and requires both time and practice. We often get fixated at level one (fiddling with a frequency or some frustrating detail) when we should be engaging the bigger picture. āSA scanningā like an instrument scan improves with practice. We respond physiologically to shiny bright buzzers or screens and often miss subtle cues unless we consciously push our mental focus.
Another important method to improve SA is by constantly testing our assumptions (mental models) both internally and with others. We all have human limitations and need to accept the fact that our personal perceptions and mental models may be flawed. Whether we are single pilot or have a partner or co-pilot, itās critical to solicit input and stay curious and humble. No harm in pinging ATC with a verification or talking through the next leg with your co-pilot. A rigid mindset in a dynamic and evolving environment can be dangerous. We must enforce flexibility and constantly test and adjust as necessary. Committing to vigilance and continuous data gathering (rather than numb butt) has saved many flights from disaster.
Most āI was there and survivedā stories (I love Ernest Gann) involve an āangel on my shoulderā that reveals a sudden awareness of the bigger picture or just a subtle clue (level 3 SA). Building more time into your flight profile if possible permits this metacognitive magic or conscious oversight to function. Many accidents are precipitated by time pressure ā the airplane was way ahead of the pilotās mental models. Let me know if any of that helps? Fly safely (and often!)

Join SAFE to support our safety mission of generating aviation excellence in teaching and flying. Our amazing member benefits pay back your contribution (1/3 off your ForeFlight subscription)! Our FREE SAFE Toolkit App puts required pilot endorsements and experience requirements right on your smartphone and facilitate CFI+DPE teamwork. Our CFI insurance was developed specifically for CFI professionals (and is the best value in the business).